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Information

Entropy and Information

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Entropy and Information

The term entropy is often avoided because it contains a certain complexity that cannot be argued away.
But when we talk about information, we also have to talk about entropy. Because entropy is the measure of the amount of information. We cannot understand what information is without understanding what entropy is.

Information is Always Relative

We believe that we can pack information, just as we store bits in a storage medium. Bits are there objectively available, like little beads in a chain that can say yes or no. For us, this is information. But this image is deceptive. We have become so accustomed to this picture that we can’t imagine otherwise.

Of course, the bit-spherules do not say ‘yes’ or ‘no’, nor 0 or 1, nor TRUE or FALSE, of anything else in particular. Bits have no meaning at all, unless you have defined this meaning from the outside. Then they can perfectly say 1, TRUE, ‘I’m coming to dinner tonight’ or something else, but only together with their environment, their context.

This consideration makes it clear that information is relative. The bit only acquires its meaning from its placement. Depending on its context, it means 0 or 1, ‘true’ or ‘false’, etc. The bit is set in its place, but its meaning only comes from its place.

The place and its context, must therefore be taken into account so that it becomes clear what the bit is supposed to mean. And of course, the meaning is relative, i.e. the same bit can have a completely different meaning in a different context, a different place.

This relativity characterises not only the bit, but every type of information. Every piece of information only acquires its meaning through the context in which it is placed. It is therefore relative. Bits are just signals. What they mean only becomes clear when you interpret the signals from your perspective, when you look at it from your context.

Only then does the signal take on a meaning for you. This meaning is not absolute, because whenever we try to isolate it from its context, it will be reduced to a signal mere signal.  The meaning can only be found relative in the interaction between your expectation, the context and the position of the bit. There it is a switch, which can be set to ON or OFF. However, ON and OFF only inform about the position of the switch. Everything else is in the surroundings.

Definition of Entropy

Considering how important information and information technologies are today, it is astonishing how little is known about the scientific definition of entropy, i.e. information:

Entropy is a measure of the information that is 
– known in the micro 
– but unknown in the macro level.

Entropy is therefore closely related to information at the micro and macro levels and can be seen as the ‘distance’ or difference between the information at the two information levels.

Micro and Macro Level Define Information

What is meant by this gap between the micro and macro levels?  –  When we look at an object, the micro level contains the details (i.e. a lot of information), and the macro level contains the overview (i.e. less, but more targeted information).

The distance between the two levels can be very small (as with the bit, where the microlevel knows just two pieces of information: on or off) or huge, as with the temperature (macrolevel) in the coffee cup, for example, where the kinetic energies of the many molecules (microlevel) determine the temperature of the coffee. The number of molecules in this case lies in the order of Avogadro’s number 1023, i.e. quite high, and the entropy of the coffee in the cup is correspondingly high.
On the other hand, when the span between micro and macro level becomes very narrow, the information (entropy) will be small and comes very close to the size of a bit (info content = 1). However, it always depends on the relation between micro and macro level. This relation – i.e. what is known in the micro level but not in the macro level – defines the information that you receive, namely the information that a closer look at the details reveals.

The Complexity of the Macro Level

A state on the macro level always contains less information than on the micro state. The macro state is not complete, it never can contain all information one could possibly get by a closer look, but in most cases it is a well targeted and intended simplification of the information at the micro level.

This means that the same micro-state can supply different macro-states. For example: a certain individual (micro level), can belong to the collective macro groups of Swiss inhabitants, computer scientists, older men, contemporaries of the year 2024, etc., all at the same time.

The possibility of simultaneously drawing out several macro-states from different micro-states is characteristic of the complexity of micro- and macro-states and thus also of entropy.

If we transfer the entropy consideration of thermodynamics to more complex networks, we must deal with their higher complexity, but the ideas of micro and macro state remain and help us to understand what is going on when information is gained and processed.

Translation: Juan Utzinger

Continued in Entropy, Part 2

See also:
– Paradoxes and Logic, Part 2
– Georg Spencer-Brown’s Distinction and the Bit
–  What is Entropy?
– Five Preconceptions about Entropy

Artificial Intelligence, Logic

Information Reduction 8: Different Macro States

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Two states at the same time

In my last article I showed how a system can be described at two levels: that of the micro and that of the macro state. At the micro level, all the information is present in full detail; at the macro level there is less information but what there is, is more stable. We have already discussed the example of the glass of water, where  the micro state describes the movement of the individual water molecules, whereas the macro state encompasses the temperature of the liquid. In this paper I would like to discuss how different the relationship between micro and macro states can be.

Does the macro state depend on the micro state?

In terms of its information content, the macro state is always smaller than the micro. But does it have an existence of its own at all, or is it simply a consequence of the micro state? To what extent is the macro state really determined by the micro state? In my opinion, there are major differences between the different situations in this respect. This becomes clear when we consider the question of how to predict the future of the systems.

Glass of water

If we know the kinetic energy of the many individual molecules that make up a glass of water, we also know its temperature – the macro state can be deduced from knowledge about the micro state. In this case, we also know how it will develop: if the system remains closed, the temperature will remain constant. The macro state remains the same, even though there is a lot of information speeding around in the micro state. The temperature only changes when external influences – and in particular energy flows – come to bear. So, why does the temperature remain the same? It all comes down to the law of conservation of energy. The total amount of energy in the closed system remains constant, which means that however the variables in the micro state change, the macro state remains the same.

But why does the law of conservation of energy apply? This is closely linked to the Hamilton principle or principle of least action. This is one of the most fundamental rules in nature and by no means confined to thermodynamics.

The closed thermodynamic system is an ideal system that hardly ever occurs in such a pure form in nature; in reality, it is always an approximation. Let us now compare this abstract system with some systems that really do exist in the natural world.

Water waves and Bénard cells

This type of system can be observed as a wave on the surface of a body of water. In my opinion, Bénard cells, as described in the work of Prigogine, fall into the same category. In both cases, the macroscopic structures come into being as open systems. Both cells and waves can only arise due to external influences, with Bénard cells forming due to temperature gradient and gravity, and water waves forming due to wind and gravity. The structures arise due to the effects of these external forces, which interact to produce macroscopic structures that, interestingly enough, remain in place for long periods. Their persistence is astonishing. Why does the wave maintain its shape, when the particles of matter it is made up of are constantly changing?

The macroscopic structures formed in such open systems are much more complex than those of an isolated thermal system. Opposing external forces (such as wind and gravity) give rise to completely new forms – waves and cells. The external forces are necessary for the form to emerge and persist, but the resulting macroscopic form itself is new and is not inherent to the external forces, which are very simple in terms of information content.

Just like in the thermal system, we have two levels here: the macro level of the simple outer form (cell or wave) and a micro level of the many molecules that make up the body of this form. And, once again, the macro level – i.e. the form – is much simpler in terms of information content than the micro level, which consists of a huge number of molecules. The wave retains its shape over a long period of time, while the underlying molecules move about frantically. The wave continues to roll, capturing new molecules along the way, which now make up the wave. At given any moment the form, i.e. the coming together of the macro state from the individual molecules, appears completely determined. The information that makes up the form, however, is much easier to grasp at the macro level. The movements of the many individual molecules that make up the wave are there, but do not seem necessary to describe the form of the wave. It looks as though the new macro state is best explained by the old one.

In contrast to more highly developed organisms, the structure of both water waves and Bénard cells disappears as soon as the forces from outside diminish. Our own existence, like that of any other organic life, depends on structures that are much slower to disappear. That is to say: the macro state needs strengthened in relation to the micro state.

The thermostat

The macro state can be bolstered by giving it a controller. Imagine a heating system with a temperature sensor. When the temperature drops, the heating comes on; when it gets too high, the heating goes off. This keeps the temperature, i.e. the macro state, constant. But, of course, this heating system is anything but closed from a thermodynamic point of view. And temperature sensors and control systems to support the macro state and keep it constant are a human invention, not a naturally occurring phenomenon like water waves. Does such a thing exist in the natural world?

Autopoiesis and autopersistence

Of course, such control systems are also found in nature. During my medical studies I was impressed by the number and complexity of control circuits in the human organism. Control is always based upon information. The study of medicine made it evident to me that information is an essential part of the world.

The automatic formation of the wave or Bénard cell is a phenomenon known as autopoiesis. Waves and cells are not stable, but biological organisms are – or, at any rate, they are much more stable than waves. This is because biological organisms incorporate their own control systems. It’s as if a wave were to become aware of its own utter dependency on the wind and respond by actively seeking out its source of sustenance (the wind) or by creating a structure within itself to preserve its energy for the lean times when the wind is not blowing.

This is exactly what the human body – and in fact every biological body – does. It is a macro state that can maintain itself by controlling its micro state and deploying control processes in response to its environment.

Biological systems

This type of system differs from insulated thermal systems by its ability to create shapes, and from simple, randomly created natural shapes such as a water wave by its ability to actively assist the shape’s survival. This is because biological systems can respond to their environment to ensure their own survival. Biological systems differ from the simpler autopoietic systems in their ability to maintain a constant shape for longer thanks to complex internal controls and purposeful activity in response to their environment.

If a system is to maintain a constant form, it needs some kind of memory to preserve the pattern. And, if it is to respond purposefully to its environment, it helps if it has some kind of idea about this outside world. Both this memory of its own pattern and the simplified idea about the outside world need to be represented as information within the biological system information, otherwise it will not be able to maintain its form over time. The biological system thus has some kind of information-based interior. Because of the properties described above, biological systems are always interpreting systems.

This is an article from the series Information reduction.

Translation: Tony Häfliger and Vivien Blandford

Information

Information Reduction 7: Micro and Macro State

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Examples of information reduction

In previous texts we looked at examples of information reduction in the following areas:

  • Coding / classification
  • Sensory perception
  • DRG (Flat rate per case)
  • Opinion formation
  • Thermodynamics

What do they have in common?

Micro and macro state

What all these examples have in common is that, in terms of information, there are two states: a micro state with a great many details and a macro state with much less information. One very clear example that many of us will remember from our school days is the relationship between the two levels in thermodynamics.

The two states exist simultaneously, and have less to do with the object itself than with the perspective of the observer. Does he need to know everything, down to the last detail? Or is he more interested in the essence, i.e. the simplified information of the macro state?

Micro and macro state in information theory

The interplay of micro and macro states was first recognised in thermodynamics. In my opinion, however, this is a general phenomenon, which is closely linked to the process of information reduction. It is particularly helpful to differentiate between the two states when investigating information processing in complex situations.
Wherever the amount of information is reduced, a distinction can be drawn between a micro and a macro state. The micro state is the one that contains more information, the macro state less. Both describe the same object, but from different perspectives.

The more detailed micro state is considered to be ‘more real’

We tend to think we are seeing something more clearly if we can discern more details. So we regard the detailed micro state as the actual reality and the macro state as either an interpretation or a consequence of this.

… but the low-information macro state is more interesting

Remarkably, however, the low-information state is of more interest to us than the micro state. In the micro state, there are simply too many details. These are either irrelevant to us (thermodynamics, sensory perception) or they obstruct our clear view of the goal represented by the macro state (coding, classification, opinion-forming, flat rate per case).

Strange antagonism

There is thus a strange antagonism between the two states, with one seeming more real and the other more relevant, as if these two qualities were somehow at odds with one another. The more detailed the information, the less the many single data points have to do with the overall perspective, which thus increasingly disappears from sight. On the other hand: the more intensively the view strives for relevance, the more it detaches itself from the details of reality. This paradoxical relationship between micro and macro state is characteristic of all information reduction relationships and highlights both the importance of, and the challenges associated with, such processes.

Are there differences between the various processes of information reduction?

Absolutely. The only thing they have in common is that it is possible to display the data at a detailed micro level or at a macro level containing little information, with the latter usually being more relevant.

Such processes always involve a reduction in information, but the way in which it is reduced differs. At this point it would be illuminating to examine the differences – which play a decisive role in many issues – more closely. Read more in next post.

This is a page about information reduction — see also overview.

Translation: Tony Häfliger and Vivien Blandford