Tag Archives: Deep Learning

Artificial Intelligence

Now where in artificial intelligence is the intelligence located?

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In a nutshell: the intelligence is always located outside.

a) Rule-based systems

The rules and algorithms of these systems are created by human beings, and no one will ascribe real intelligence to a pocket calculator. The same also applies to all other rule-based systems, however refined they may be. The rules are devised by human beings.

b) Conventional corpus-based systems (neural networks)

These systems always use an assessed corpus, i.e. a collection of data which have already been evaluated  (details). This assessment decides according to what criteria each individual corpus entry is classified, and this classification then constitutes the real knowledge in the corpus.

However, the classification cannot be derived from the data of the corpus itself but is always introduced from the outside. And it is not only the allocation of a data entry to a class that can only be done from the outside; rather, the classes themselves are not determined by the data of the corpus, either, but are provided from the outside – ultimately by human beings.

The intelligence of these systems is always located in the assessment of the data pool, i.e. the allocation of the data objects to predefined classes, and this is done from the outside, by human beings. The neural network which is thus created does not know how the human brain has found the evaluations required for it.

c) Search engines

Search engines constitute a special type of corpus-based system and are based on the fact that many people use a certain search engine and decide with their clicks which internet links can be allocated to the search string. Ultimately, search engines only average the traces which the many users leave with their context knowledge and their intentions. Without the human brains of the users who have used the search engines so far, the search engines would not know where to point new queries.

d) Game programs (chess, Go, etc.) / deep learning

This is where things become interesting, for in contrast to the other corpus-based systems, such programs do not require any human beings who assess the corpus, which consists of the moves of games previously played from the outside. Does this mean, then, that such systems have an intelligence of their own?

Like the pattern recognition programs (b) and the search engines (c), the Go program has a corpus which in this case contains all the moves of the test games played before. The difference from the classic AI systems consists in the fact that the assessment of the corpus (i.e. the moves of the games) is already defined by the success in the actual game. Thus no human being is required who has to make a distinction between foreign tanks and our own tanks in order to provide the template for the neural network. The game’s success can be directly recognised by the machine, i.e. the algorithm itself; human beings are not required.

With classic AI systems, this is not the case, and a human being who assesses the individual corpus items is indispensable. Added to this, the assessment criterion is not given unequivocally, as it is with Go. Tank images can be categorised in completely different ways (wheeled/tracked tanks, damaged/undamaged tanks, tanks in towns/open country, in black and white/coloured pictures, etc.). This opens the interpretation options for the assessment at random. For all these reasons, an automatic categorisation is impossible with classic AI systems, which therefore always require an assessment of the learning corpus by human experts.

In the case of chess and Go, it is precisely this that is not required. Chess and Go are artificially designed and completely closed systems and thus indeed completely determined in advance. The board, the rules and the objective of the game – and thus also the assessment of the individual moves – are given automatically. Therefore no additional intelligence is required; instead, an automatism can play test games with itself within a predefined, closed setting and in this way attain the predefined objective better and better until it is better than any human being.

In the case of tasks which have to be solved not in an artificial game setting but in reality, however, the permitted moves and objectives are not completely defined, and there is leeway for strategy. An automatic system like deep learning cannot be applied in open, i.e. real situations.

It goes without saying that in practice, a considerable intelligence is required to program victory in Go and other games, and we may well admire the intelligence of the engineers at Google, etc., for that, yet once again it is their human intelligence which enables them to develop the programs, and not an intelligence which the programs designed by them are able to develop themselves.

Conclusion

AI systems can be very impressive and very useful, but they never have an intelligence of their own.

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence (Overview )

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Is AI dangerous or useful?

This question is currently the subject of extensive debate. The aim here is not to repeat well-known opinions, but to shed light on the basics of the technology that you are almost certainly unaware of. Or do you know where AI gets its intelligence from?

For a quarter of a century, I have been working with ‘intelligent’ IT systems and I am astonished that we ascribe real intelligence to artificial intelligence at all. That’s exactly what it doesn’t have. Its intelligence always comes from humans, who not only provide the data, but also have to evaluate its meaning before the AI can use it. Only then, AI can surprise us with its impressiv performance and countless useful applications in a wide variety of areas. How does it achieve this?

In 2019, I started a blog series on this topic, which you can see an overview of below. In 2021, I then summarised the articles in a book entitled “Wie die künstliche Intelligenz zur Intelligenz kommt” (in German).

While the book is in German, the blogseries is available both in German and English.

Rule-based or corpus-based?

These are the two fundamentally different methods of computer intelligence. They can either be based on rules or a collection of data (corpus). In the introductory post, I present the two with the help of two characteristic anecdotes:

With regard to success, the corpus-based systems have obviously outstripped the rule-based ones:

The rule-based systems had a more difficult time of it. What are their challenges? How can they overcome their weaknesses? And where is their intelligence situated inside them?

How are corpus-based systems set up? How is their corpus compiled and assessed? What are neural networks all about? And what are the natural limits of corpus-based systems?

Next, we’ll have a look at search engines, which are also corpus-based systems. How do they arrive at their proposals? Where are their limits and dangers? Why, for instance, is it inevitable that bubbles are formed?

Is a program capable of learning without human beings providing it with useful pieces of advice? It appears to work with deep learning. To understand this, we first compare a simple card game with chess: what requires more intelligence? Surprisingly, it becomes clear that for a computer, chess is the simpler game.

With the help of the general conditions of the board games Go and chess, we recognise under what conditions deep learning works.

In the following blog post, I’ll provide an overview of the AI types known to me. I’ll draw a brief outline of their individual structures and of the differences in the way they work.

So where is the intelligence?

The considerations reveal what distinguishes natural intelligence from artificial intelligence:

AI only shows its capabilities when the task is clear and simple. As soon as the question becomes complex, they fail. Or they fib by arranging beautiful sentences found in their treasure trove of data in such a way that it sounds intelligent (ChatGPT, LaMDA). They do not work with logic, but with statistics, i.e. with probability. But is what appears to be true always true?

The weaknesses necessarily follow from the design principle of AI. Further articles deal with this:

Artificial Intelligence

Games and Intelligence (2): Deep Learning

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Go and chess

The Asian game of Go shares many similarities with chess while being simpler and more sophisticated at the same time.

The same as in chess:
– Board game → clearly defined playing field
– Two players (more would immediately increase complexity)
– Unequivocally defined possibilities of playing the stones (clear rules)
– The players place stones alternately (clear timeline).
– No hidden information (as, for instance, in cards)
– Clear objective (the player who has surrounded the larger territory wins)

Simpler in Go:
– Only one type of piece: the stone (unlike in chess: king, queen, etc.)

More complex/requires more effort:
– Go has a slightly larger playing field.
– The higher number of fields and stones require more computation.
– Despite its very simple rules, Go is a highly sophisticated game.

Summary

Compared with their common features, the differences between Go and chess are minimal. In particular, Go satisfies the strongly limiting preconditions a) to d), which enable an algorithm to tackle the job:

a) a clearly defined playing field,
b) clearly defined rules,
c) a clearly defined course of play,
d) a clear objective.(Cf. also preceding blog post)

Go and deep learning

Google has beaten the best human Go players. This victory was achieved by means of a type of AI which is called deep learning. Many people think that this proves that a computer – i.e. a machine – can be genuinely intelligent. Let us therefore have a closer look at how Google managed to do this.

Rule- or corpus-based, or a new, third system?

The strategies of the known AI programs are either rule-based or corpus-based. In previous posts, we asked ourselves where the intelligence in these two strategies comes from, and we realised that the intelligence in rule-based AI is injected into the system by the human experts who establish the rules. Corpus-based AI also requires human beings, since all the inputs into the corpus must be assessed (e.g. friendly/hostile tanks), and these assessments can always be traced back to people even if this is not immediately obvious.

However, what does this look like in the case of deep learning? Obviously, it does not require any human beings any longer in order to provide specific assessments – in Go, with regard to the individual moves’ chances of winning; rather, it is sufficient for the program to play against itself and find out on its own which moves have proved most successful. In this, deep learning does NOT depend on human intelligence and – in chess and Go – even turns out to be superior to human intelligence.

Deep learning is corpus-based

Google’s engineers undoubtedly did a fantastic job. Whereas in conventional corpus-based applications, the data for the corpus have to be compiled laboriously, this is quite simple in the case of the Go program: the engineers simply have the computer play against itself, and every game is an input into the corpus. No one has to take the trouble to trawl the internet or any other source for data; instead, the computer is able to generate a corpus of any size very simply and quickly. Although like the programs for pattern recognition, deep learning for Go continues to depend on a corpus, this corpus can be compiled in a much simpler way – and automatically at that.

Yet it gets even better for deep learning. Not only is the compilation of the corpus much simpler, but the assessment of the single moves in the corpus is also very easy: Finding out the best move from among all the moves that are possible at any given time no longer requires any human experts. How does this work? How is deep learning capable of drawing intelligent conclusions without any human intelligence at all? This may be astonishing, but if we look at it in more detail, it becomes clear why this is indeed the case.

The assessment of corpus inputs

The difference is the assessment of the corpus inputs. To illustrate this, let’s have another look at the tank example. Its corpus consists of tank images, and a human expert has to assess each picture according to whether it shows one of our own tanks or a foreign tank. As explained, this requires human experts. In our second example, the search engine, it is also human beings, namely the users, who assess whether the link to a website suggested in the corpus fits the input search string. Both types of AI cannot do without human intelligence.

With deep learning, however, this is really different. The assessment of the corpus, i.e. the individual moves that make up the many different Go test games, does not require any additional intelligence. The assessment automatically results from the games themselves, since the only criterion is whether the game has been won or lost. This, however, is known to the corpus itself since it has registered the entire course of every game right to the end. Therefore the way in which every game has proceeded, automatically contains its own assessment – assessments by human beings are no longer required.

The natural limits of deep learning

The above, however, also reveals the conditions in which deep learning is possible at all: for the course of the game and the assessment to be clear-cut, there must not be any surprises. Ambiguous situations and uncontrollable outside influences are not allowed. For everything to be flawlessly calculable, the following is indispensable:

1. A closed system

This is given by the properties a) to c) (cf. preceding post), which games like chess and Go possess, namely

a) a clearly defined playing field,
b) clearly defined rules,
c) a clearly defined course of play.

A closed system is necessary for deep learning to work. Such a system can only be an artificially constructed system, for there are no closed systems in nature. It is no accident that chess and Go are particularly suitable for AI since games always have this aspect of being consciously designed. Games which integrate chance as part of the system, such as cards in the preceding post, are not absolutely closed systems any longer and therefore less suitable for artificial intelligence.

2. A clearly defined objective

A clearly defined objective – point d) in the preceding post – is also necessary for the assessment of the corpus to take place without any human interference, because the objective of the process under investigation and the assessment of the corpus inputs are closely connected. We must understand that the target of the corpus assessment is not given by the corpus data. Data and assessment are two different things. We have already discussed this in the example of the tanks, where we saw that a corpus input, i.e. the pixels of a tank photograph, did not automatically contain its own assessment (hostile/friendly). The assessment is a piece of information which is not intrinsic to the individual data (pixels) of an image; rather, it has to be fed into the corpus from the outside (by an interpreting intelligence). Therefore the same corpus input can also be assessed in very different ways: if the corpus is told whether an individual image is one of our own tanks or a foreign tank, it still does not know whether it is a tracked tank or a wheeled tank. With all such images, assessments can go in very different directions – unlike with chess and Go, where a move in a game (which is known to the corpus) is solely assessed according to the criterion of whether it is conducive to winning the game.

Thus chess and Go pursue a simple, clearly defined objective. In contrast to these two games, however, tank pictures allow for a wide variety of assessment objectives. This is typical of real situations. Real situations are always open, and in such situations, various and differing assessements can make sense and are absolutely appropriate. For the purpose of assessment, an instance (intelligence) outside the data has to establish the connection between the data and the assessment objective. This function is always linked to an instance with a certain intention.

Machine intelligence, however, lacks this intention and therefore depends on being provided with it by an objective from the outside. If the objective is as self-evident as it is in chess and Go, this is not a problem, and the assessment of the corpus can indeed be conducted by the machine itself without any human intelligence. In such unequivocal situations, machine deep learning is genuinely capable of working – indeed, even of beating human intelligence.

However, this only applies if the rules and the objective of a game are clearly defined. In all other cases, it is not an algorithm that is required but “real” intelligence, i.e. intelligence with a deliberate intention.

Conclusion

  1. Deep learning (DL) works.
  2. DL uses a corpus-based system.
  3. DL is capable of beating human intelligence in certain applications.
  4. However, DL only works in a closed system.
  5. DL only works if the objective is clear and unequivocal.

Ad 4) Closed systems are not real but are either obvious constructs (like games) or idealisations of real circumstances (= models). Such idealisations are invariably simplification with reduced information content. They are therefore incapable of mapping reality completely.

Ad 5) The objective, i.e. the “intention”, corresponds to a subjective momentum. This subjective momentum distinguishes natural from machine intelligence. The machine must be provided with it in advance.

This is a blog post about artificial intelligence.

Translation: Tony Häfliger and Vivien Blandford